Tentang kapitalisme, sosiolog Max Weber yang sangat terkenal dengan bukunya The Protestant Ethic and The Spirit of Capitalism, menilai bahwa Islam tidak menghasilkan kapitalisme. Tidak ada asketis dalam Islam, dan kapitalisme telah digugurkan dari kandungan Islam. Cerita miring tentang muslim juga kita dengar misalnya dari BB Harring, James L Peacock, Rosemary Firth dan Clive Kessler. Harring bahkan menyebut Islam sebagai pengganggu kultural (cultural intruder).Ada peristiwa-peristiwa kecil yang menarik , yaitu event dimana Rasul Muhammad SAW mencium tangan ummatnya. Maknanya jelas: ISLAM SANGAT MENGHARAGI PEKERJA KERAS. Menurut referensi sejauh ini, tidak banyak peristiwa Nabi Muhammad SAW mencium tangan ummatnya.
Namun pendapat Weber dinilai tidak ilmiah. Kritik ini tidak hanya datang dari kalangan Muslim, bahkan dari kalangan sosiolog sendiri. Paparan Weber mengenai etika Islam tidaklah benar dan analisanya dangkal. Salah satu sosiolog yang mengkritik Weber adalah Bryan S. Turner. Weber dinilai memperlakukan dan menafsirkan Islam secara faktual sangat lemah tidak seperti ia menganalisa calvinisme pada etika Protestan. Kritik lain datang dari Huff dan Schluchter yang menilai pencarian Weber tentang Islam belumlah tuntas.
Nurcholis Masjid pun sejalan dengan kritik ini. Kelemahan Weber adalah karena ia mengumpulkan bahan-bahannya itu hanya dari disiplin sosiologi Prancis, padahal pada orang-orang Prancis itu sosiologi Islam belum terwujud, karena hanya hasil karya pribadi-pribadi para pejabat kolonial untuk urusan pribumi, peneliti sosial amatir, dan kaum Orientalis; bukan dari kalangan sosiologi. Itupun terbatas kepada kawasan Afrika Utara saja. Hal ini pun didukung Marshall G.S. Hodgson, seorang ahli sejarah dunia dan peradaban Islam dalam bukunya “The Venture of Islam”.
Jauh setelah karya Weber tersebut, muncul beberapa tulisan yang menyebut adanya “etika Protestan” di kalangan Muslim. Misalnya dari pengamatan di kalangan Muslim Turki. Mereka menemukan sekelompok pengusaha sukses Muslim di satu kawasan. Tulisan ini menyebutnya dengan kebangkitan karena adanya “Calvinist Islam.”
Pertama adalah tangan sahabat Sa’ad bin Mu’adz Al-Anshari. Saat kembali dari sebuah perjalan, Nabi berjumpa dengan Sa’ad, dan memperhatikan tangannya yang kasar, kering, dan kotor. Ketika disampaikan bahwa tangannya menjadi demikian karena bekerja keras mengolah tanah dan mengangkut air sepanjang hari; serta merta Nabi menciumnya. Sahabat lain bertanya, kenapa baginda Rasulullah SAW melakukan hal itu. Rasulullah SAW pun menjelaskan, bahwa itulah tangan yang tidak akan disentuh oleh api neraka, pula tangan yang dicintai Allah SWT karena tangan itu digunakan untuk bekerja keras menghidupi keluarganya.
Pada persitiwa lain, Rasulullah mengulurkan tangannya hendak menjabat tangan Mu’adz bin Jabal. Saat bersentuhan, beliau rasakan tangan itu begitu kasar. Beliaupun kemudian menanyakan sebabnya, dan dijawab oleh Mu’adz bahwa kapalan ditangannya karena bekas kerja kerasnya. Rasul pun mencium tangan Mu’adz seraya bersabda, “tangan ini dicintai Allah dan Rasul-Nya, serta tidak akan disentuh api neraka”. Dua tangan ini dicium oleh Rasulullah SAW, manusia termulia, padahal tangan itu bukanlah milik seorang kaya, orang berpangkat, syeikh, kyai, atau guru. Bukan pula tangan yang digunakan untuk menciptakan dan menulis ilmu atau mengangkat senjata. Ia hanyalah tangan yang telapaknya melepuh dan kasar, buku-buku jarinya mengeras dan kapalan, dan warnanya hitam dan kotor; karena ia dipakai mencangkul, mengangkat, memotong dan menggenggam dengan kuat. Tangan karena pemiliknya bekerja keras.
Peristiwa terakhir adalah saat rasul mencium tanngan putrinya sendiri: Fatimah Az-Zahra. Ini bukan karena Fatimah adalah putri kesayangannya. Rasul melakukannya karena baru saja dilaporkan oleh sahabat yang kebetulan lewat di depan rumah Fatimah, betapa Fatimah telah bekerja sangat keras menggiling gandum di rumahnya untuk menyiapkan makanan bagi anak-anaknya yang terdengar menangis.
Mencium tangan, bagi sebagian kultur merupakan bentuk penghormatan sehari-hari yang lumrah. Ini adalah simbol penghormatan kepada pihak yang diposisikan lebih tinggi. Perkara mencium tangan pada sebagian ulama dipandang sebagai sunnah, meskipun berjabat tangan merupakan anjuran yang lebih kuat. Mencium tangan adalah bentuk ekspresi yang lebih emosional. Sebuah peristiwa menceritakan bagaimana dua orang Yahudi mencium tangan dan kaki Rasulullah karena kekagumannya atas kerasulan Muhammad SAW.
Begitu banyak bukti-bukti lain yang mementahkan pendapat Weber di atas. Semua dirangkum dalam buku sederhana dan dengan bahasa enak dibaca “Tangan-Tangan yang Dicium Rasul”, penerbit Pustaka Hira, Jakarta. Sept 2011. (Buku Tangan-Tangan yang DICIUM RASUL http://syahyutialasan.blogspot.com/)
in English:
Caliptalism Ethic in Islam
About capitalism, the sociologist Max Weber who is very famous with his book The Protestant Ethic and The Spirit of Capitalism, considered that Islam does not produce capitalism. There was no ascetic in Islam, and capitalism has been aborted from the womb of Islam. Slanted stories we hear about Muslims as well as from BB Harring, James L Peacock, Rosemary Firth and Clive Kessler. Harring even mention Islam as a cultural intruders. There are small events of interest, ie events where the Muhammad kissed the hands of his community. Its meaning is clear: Islam like so much to HARD WORKER. According to the references so far, not many events of the Prophet Muhammad kissed the hands of his community.
But Weber considered unscientific opinion. This criticism came not only from Muslims, even among sociologists themselves. Exposure to Weber about the ethics of Islam are not true and superficial analysis. One of the critical sociologist Bryan S. Weber is Turner. Weber considered treats and interpret Islam in fact very weak not like he analyzed Calvinism on the Protestant ethic. Another criticism came from a judge Huff and Schluchter Weber searching about Islam is not yet complete.
Nurcholis was in line with this criticism. Weber weakness is that he gathered the ingredients it's just the discipline of sociology France, when the French people that the sociology of Islam has not materialized, as only the work of individuals colonial officials for indigenous affairs, social researcher amateur, and the Orientalist; instead of the sociology. IBHS is limited to the North African region alone. This is also supported Marshall G.S. Hodgson, an expert on world history and civilization of Islam in his book "The Venture of Islam".
Weber's work long after it, appeared a few references to the existence of "Protestant ethic" among Muslims. For instance, from observations among Turkish Muslims. They found a group of successful Muslim businessman in the region. This paper calls it a revival because of the "Islamic Calvinists."
The first is a friend of Sa'ad ibn Mu'adh hands of al-Ansari. When returning from a journey, the Prophet met with Saad, and noticed that his rough, dry, and dirty. When informed that his hands became so because it worked hard to cultivate the land and transport water throughout the day; necessarily Prophet kissed it. Another friend asked, why did the king do that Prophet Muhammad. Prophet Muhammad also explained that it was the hand that will not be touched by the fire of hell, also the hand of a loved one due to Allah's hand is used to working hard to support his family.
On the other event, the Prophet held out his hand to shake hands Mu'adh bin Jabal. When touched, he felt the hand was so rude. Beliaupun then ask why, and answered by Mu'adh that callused hands as former hard work. Apostle as he kissed the hand Mu'adh said, "this hand loved God and His Messenger, and will not touch the fire of hell". Two hands are kissed by the Prophet Muhammad, the noblest man, but the hand that is not owned by a rich, rank, sheikhs, religious scholars, or teachers. Nor is the hand that is used to create and write science or take up arms. He just hands blistered and rough palms, knuckles harden and calluses, and the color is black and dirty, because he used to hoe, lifting, cutting and grasping it firmly. Hand because the owners work hard.
Recent events is when the apostle of his own daughter kissing tanngan: Fatimah Az-Zahra. This is not because Fatima is the beloved daughter. The apostle did so because recently reported by friends who happened to pass in front of the house Fatima, Fatima what has worked very hard to grind wheat at home to prepare food for her children is heard crying.
Kissing the hand, for the majority culture is a form of homage everyday commonplace. It is a symbol of respect to the parties that are positioned higher. Case kissed hands on some scholars regarded as sunnah, even shaking hands is a stronger recommendation. Kissing the hand is a more emotional form of expression. An event tells how two Jews kiss the hands and feet because of his admiration for the Prophet Muhammad's apostolate.
So much other evidence that undermines Weber's opinion above. All summarized in a book with simple and readable language "Islamic Miracle of Working Hard" publisher Manna and Salwa, Jakarta. February 2011. (http://syahyutialasan.blogspot.com/). ******
Selasa, 25 Oktober 2011
Kamis, 12 Mei 2011
An introduction to the sociology of work and occupations
Rudi Volti.
Published 2008 by Pine Forge Press in Los Angeles .
Written in English.
Table of Contents:
Work before industrialization
The oldest and longest-lasting mode of life and work
Gathering and hunting societies in the modern world
The working lives of gather-hunters
The agricultural revolution
Farm labor and cultural change
Artisan work
Time and work
Protestantism and the rise of capitalism
Industrialization and its consequences
The industrial revolution
Capitalism and market economies
Wages and working conditions in the industrial revolution
Women in the industrial revolution
Industrialization and social protest
Making management "scientific"
The assembly line
A post-industrial revolution?
Technology, globalization, and work
Technology, work, and occupations
Work and contemporary technologies
Telework
Technology and globalization
Globalization, trade, and employment
Immigration
The organization of work in preindustrial times
Traditional societies and the organization of work
The family as a basis of work organization
Slavery
Caste and occupation
The guilds
Apprenticeship
An assessment of guild organization
Bureaucratic organization
The rise of bureaucratic organization
The elements of bureaucratic organization
Where bureaucracy works and where it doesn't
Bureaucratic organization, work, and the worker
Alternatives to bureaucracy
Professions and professionalization
The checklist approach to the professions
The professional continuum
Attaining professional status
Professionalization as a means of control
Professionals in organizations
Today's challenges to the professions
Resource control and professional
Autonomy: the case of medicine
Diversity and professional status
Getting a job
The economics of the job market
Minimum wage laws
Jobs, human capital, and credentials
Networks and their significance
Diversity in the workplace
Race, ethnicity, and hiring practices
Women in the workforce
Discrimination, occupational segregation, and pay
Getting ahead.
Who gets what?
The determination of wages and salaries: market economics once again
The widening income gap
Why has income inequality increased?
Unionization and its decline
Computers and income inequality
Globalization, employment, and income
Immigration and income
Occupational prestige
Life on the job: work and its rewards
Employment and unemployment
The personal consequences of unemployment
Varieties of employment
Work without pay
Job training and employment opportunities
Work and social interaction
Social relationships and job performance
The intrinsic satisfactions of work
Life on the job ii: the perils and pressures of work
Work may be hazardous to your health
Stress at work
Jobs, secure and insecure
Temporary workers
Alienated labor
Managerial efforts to reduce on-the-job alienation
Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction today
Workplace culture and socialization
The significance of workplace cultures
Socialization into a culture
Socialization as an ongoing processes
Socialization and identity
Occupational and organizational heroes
Rites of passage
Organizations and subcultures
Supportive workplace subcultures
Deviant subcultures
Socialization, careers, and strain
Work roles and life roles
The separation of work and residence
Hours of work
Women at work
Couples, families, and careers
Reconciling work and roles and life roles
Conclusion: work today and tomorrow
Technology, work, and occupations
Making globalization and technological change more equitable
Work and demographic change
Women, work, and families
Closing the income gap
The health care morass
The fate of the professions
Organizations for the 21st century
Jobs for the future
Index.
*****
Published 2008 by Pine Forge Press in Los Angeles .
Written in English.
Table of Contents:
Work before industrialization
The oldest and longest-lasting mode of life and work
Gathering and hunting societies in the modern world
The working lives of gather-hunters
The agricultural revolution
Farm labor and cultural change
Artisan work
Time and work
Protestantism and the rise of capitalism
Industrialization and its consequences
The industrial revolution
Capitalism and market economies
Wages and working conditions in the industrial revolution
Women in the industrial revolution
Industrialization and social protest
Making management "scientific"
The assembly line
A post-industrial revolution?
Technology, globalization, and work
Technology, work, and occupations
Work and contemporary technologies
Telework
Technology and globalization
Globalization, trade, and employment
Immigration
The organization of work in preindustrial times
Traditional societies and the organization of work
The family as a basis of work organization
Slavery
Caste and occupation
The guilds
Apprenticeship
An assessment of guild organization
Bureaucratic organization
The rise of bureaucratic organization
The elements of bureaucratic organization
Where bureaucracy works and where it doesn't
Bureaucratic organization, work, and the worker
Alternatives to bureaucracy
Professions and professionalization
The checklist approach to the professions
The professional continuum
Attaining professional status
Professionalization as a means of control
Professionals in organizations
Today's challenges to the professions
Resource control and professional
Autonomy: the case of medicine
Diversity and professional status
Getting a job
The economics of the job market
Minimum wage laws
Jobs, human capital, and credentials
Networks and their significance
Diversity in the workplace
Race, ethnicity, and hiring practices
Women in the workforce
Discrimination, occupational segregation, and pay
Getting ahead.
Who gets what?
The determination of wages and salaries: market economics once again
The widening income gap
Why has income inequality increased?
Unionization and its decline
Computers and income inequality
Globalization, employment, and income
Immigration and income
Occupational prestige
Life on the job: work and its rewards
Employment and unemployment
The personal consequences of unemployment
Varieties of employment
Work without pay
Job training and employment opportunities
Work and social interaction
Social relationships and job performance
The intrinsic satisfactions of work
Life on the job ii: the perils and pressures of work
Work may be hazardous to your health
Stress at work
Jobs, secure and insecure
Temporary workers
Alienated labor
Managerial efforts to reduce on-the-job alienation
Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction today
Workplace culture and socialization
The significance of workplace cultures
Socialization into a culture
Socialization as an ongoing processes
Socialization and identity
Occupational and organizational heroes
Rites of passage
Organizations and subcultures
Supportive workplace subcultures
Deviant subcultures
Socialization, careers, and strain
Work roles and life roles
The separation of work and residence
Hours of work
Women at work
Couples, families, and careers
Reconciling work and roles and life roles
Conclusion: work today and tomorrow
Technology, work, and occupations
Making globalization and technological change more equitable
Work and demographic change
Women, work, and families
Closing the income gap
The health care morass
The fate of the professions
Organizations for the 21st century
Jobs for the future
Index.
*****
Work
noun:
1. Physical or mental effort or activity directed toward the production or accomplishment of something.
2. a. A job; employment: looking for work.
b. A trade, profession, or other means of livelihood.
3. a. Something that one is doing, making, or performing, especially as an occupation or undertaking; a duty or task: begin the day's work.
b. An amount of such activity either done or required: a week's work.
4. a. The part of a day devoted to an occupation or undertaking: met her after work.
b. One's place of employment: Should I call you at home or at work?
5. a. Something that has been produced or accomplished through the effort, activity, or agency of a person or thing: This story is the work of an active imagination. Erosion is the work of wind, water, and time.
b. Full action or effect of an agency: The sleeping pills did their work.
c. An act; a deed: "I have seen all the works that are done under the sun; and, behold, all is vanity" (Ecclesiastes 1:14).
6. a. An artistic creation, such as a painting, sculpture, or literary or musical composition; a work of art.
b. works The output of a writer, artist, or musician considered or collected as a whole: the works of Shakespeare.
7. a. works Engineering structures, such as bridges or dams.
b. A fortified structure, such as a trench or fortress.
8. a. Needlework, weaving, lacemaking, or a similar textile art.
b. A piece of such textile art.
9. A material or piece of material being processed in a machine during manufacture: work to be turned in the lathe.
10. works (used with a sing. or pl. verb) A factory, plant, or similar building or complex of buildings where a specific type of business or industry is carried on. Often used in combination: a steelworks.
11. works Internal mechanism: the works of a watch.
12. The manner, style, or quality of working or treatment; workmanship.
13. Abbr. w Physics The transfer of energy from one physical system to another, especially the transfer of energy to a body by the application of a force that moves the body in the direction of the force. It is calculated as the product of the force and the distance through which the body moves and is expressed in joules, ergs, and foot-pounds.
14. works Moral or righteous acts or deeds: salvation by faith rather than works.
15. works
a. Informal The full range of possibilities; everything. Used with the: ordered a pizza with the works.
b. Slang A thorough beating or other severe treatment. Used with the: took him outside and gave him the works.
Adjective:
Of, relating to, designed for, or engaged in work.
v. worked also wrought (rôt), work•ing, works
v.intr.
1. To exert oneself physically or mentally in order to do, make, or accomplish something.
2. To be employed; have a job.
3. a. To function; operate: How does this latch work?
b. To function or operate in the desired or required way: The telephone hasn't worked since the thunderstorm.
4. a. To have a given effect or outcome: Our friendship works best when we speak our minds.
b. To have the desired effect or outcome; prove successful: This recipe seems to work.
5. To exert an influence. Used with on or upon: worked on her to join the group.
6. To arrive at a specified condition through gradual or repeated movement: The stitches worked loose.
7. To proceed or progress slowly and laboriously: worked through the underbrush; worked through my problems in therapy.
8. To move in an agitated manner, as with emotion: Her mouth worked with fear.
9. To behave in a specified way when handled or processed: Not all metals work easily.
10. To ferment.
11. Nautical
a. To strain in heavy seas so that the joints give slightly and the fastenings become slack. Used of a boat or ship.
b. To sail against the wind.
12. To undergo small motions that result in friction and wear: The gears work against each other.
v.tr. :
1. To cause or effect; bring about: working miracles.
2. To cause to operate or function; actuate, use, or manage: worked the controls; can work a lathe.
3. To shape or forge: "Each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor" (Edgar Allan Poe).
4. To make or decorate by needlework: work a sampler.
5. To solve (a problem) by calculation and reasoning.
6. To knead, stir, or otherwise manipulate in preparation: Work the dough before shaping it.
7. To bring to a specified condition by gradual or repeated effort or work: finally worked the window open; worked the slaves to death.
8. To make, achieve, or pay for by work or effort: worked her way to the top; worked his passage on the ship.
9. Informal To arrange or contrive. Often used with it: worked it so that her weekends are free.
10. To make productive; cultivate: work a farm.
11. To cause to work: works his laborers hard.
12. To excite or provoke: worked the mob into a frenzy.
13. Informal
a. To gratify, cajole, or enchant artfully, especially for the purpose of influencing: The politician worked the crowd. The comedian worked the room with flawless rhythm.
b. To use or manipulate to one's own advantage; exploit: learned how to work the system; worked his relatives for sympathy.
14. To carry on an operation or function in or through: the agent who works that area; working the phones for donations.
15. To ferment (liquor, for example).
Phrasal Verbs:
work in
1. To insert or introduce: worked in a request for money.
2. To make an opening for, as in a schedule: said the doctor would try to work her in.
3. To cause to be inserted by repeated or continuous effort.
work into
1. To insert or introduce into.
2. To make an opening for (someone or something) in: worked a few field trips into the semester's calendar.
3. To cause to be inserted in by repeated or continuous effort: worked the pick into the lock.
work off
To get rid of by work or effort: work off extra pounds; work off a debt.
work out
1. To accomplish by work or effort.
2. To find a solution for; solve: worked out the equations; worked out their personal differences.
3. To formulate or develop: work out a plan.
4. To discharge (an obligation or debt) with labor in place of money.
5. To prove successful, effective, or satisfactory: The new strategy may not work out.
6. To have a specified result: The ratio works out to an odd number. It worked out that everyone left on the same train.
7. To engage in strenuous exercise for physical conditioning.
8. To exhaust (a mine, for example).
work over
1. To do for a second time; rework.
2. Slang To inflict severe physical damage on; beat up.
work up
1. To arouse the emotions of; excite.
2. a. To increase one's skill, responsibility, efficiency, or status through work: worked up to 30 sit-ups a day; worked up to store manager.
b. To intensify gradually: The film works up to a thrilling climax.
3. To develop or produce by mental or physical effort: worked up a patient profile; worked up an appetite.
Idioms:
at work
1. Engaged in labor; working: at work on a new project.
2. In operation: inflationary forces at work in the economy.
in the works
In preparation; under development: has a novel in the works.
out of work
Without a job; unemployed.
put in work
To perform labor or duties, as on a specified project: put in work on the plastering.
work both sides of the street
To engage in double-dealing; be duplicitous.
work like a charm
To function very well or have a very good effect or outcome.
work (one's) fingers to the bone
To labor extremely hard; toil or travail.
*****
1. Physical or mental effort or activity directed toward the production or accomplishment of something.
2. a. A job; employment: looking for work.
b. A trade, profession, or other means of livelihood.
3. a. Something that one is doing, making, or performing, especially as an occupation or undertaking; a duty or task: begin the day's work.
b. An amount of such activity either done or required: a week's work.
4. a. The part of a day devoted to an occupation or undertaking: met her after work.
b. One's place of employment: Should I call you at home or at work?
5. a. Something that has been produced or accomplished through the effort, activity, or agency of a person or thing: This story is the work of an active imagination. Erosion is the work of wind, water, and time.
b. Full action or effect of an agency: The sleeping pills did their work.
c. An act; a deed: "I have seen all the works that are done under the sun; and, behold, all is vanity" (Ecclesiastes 1:14).
6. a. An artistic creation, such as a painting, sculpture, or literary or musical composition; a work of art.
b. works The output of a writer, artist, or musician considered or collected as a whole: the works of Shakespeare.
7. a. works Engineering structures, such as bridges or dams.
b. A fortified structure, such as a trench or fortress.
8. a. Needlework, weaving, lacemaking, or a similar textile art.
b. A piece of such textile art.
9. A material or piece of material being processed in a machine during manufacture: work to be turned in the lathe.
10. works (used with a sing. or pl. verb) A factory, plant, or similar building or complex of buildings where a specific type of business or industry is carried on. Often used in combination: a steelworks.
11. works Internal mechanism: the works of a watch.
12. The manner, style, or quality of working or treatment; workmanship.
13. Abbr. w Physics The transfer of energy from one physical system to another, especially the transfer of energy to a body by the application of a force that moves the body in the direction of the force. It is calculated as the product of the force and the distance through which the body moves and is expressed in joules, ergs, and foot-pounds.
14. works Moral or righteous acts or deeds: salvation by faith rather than works.
15. works
a. Informal The full range of possibilities; everything. Used with the: ordered a pizza with the works.
b. Slang A thorough beating or other severe treatment. Used with the: took him outside and gave him the works.
Adjective:
Of, relating to, designed for, or engaged in work.
v. worked also wrought (rôt), work•ing, works
v.intr.
1. To exert oneself physically or mentally in order to do, make, or accomplish something.
2. To be employed; have a job.
3. a. To function; operate: How does this latch work?
b. To function or operate in the desired or required way: The telephone hasn't worked since the thunderstorm.
4. a. To have a given effect or outcome: Our friendship works best when we speak our minds.
b. To have the desired effect or outcome; prove successful: This recipe seems to work.
5. To exert an influence. Used with on or upon: worked on her to join the group.
6. To arrive at a specified condition through gradual or repeated movement: The stitches worked loose.
7. To proceed or progress slowly and laboriously: worked through the underbrush; worked through my problems in therapy.
8. To move in an agitated manner, as with emotion: Her mouth worked with fear.
9. To behave in a specified way when handled or processed: Not all metals work easily.
10. To ferment.
11. Nautical
a. To strain in heavy seas so that the joints give slightly and the fastenings become slack. Used of a boat or ship.
b. To sail against the wind.
12. To undergo small motions that result in friction and wear: The gears work against each other.
v.tr. :
1. To cause or effect; bring about: working miracles.
2. To cause to operate or function; actuate, use, or manage: worked the controls; can work a lathe.
3. To shape or forge: "Each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor" (Edgar Allan Poe).
4. To make or decorate by needlework: work a sampler.
5. To solve (a problem) by calculation and reasoning.
6. To knead, stir, or otherwise manipulate in preparation: Work the dough before shaping it.
7. To bring to a specified condition by gradual or repeated effort or work: finally worked the window open; worked the slaves to death.
8. To make, achieve, or pay for by work or effort: worked her way to the top; worked his passage on the ship.
9. Informal To arrange or contrive. Often used with it: worked it so that her weekends are free.
10. To make productive; cultivate: work a farm.
11. To cause to work: works his laborers hard.
12. To excite or provoke: worked the mob into a frenzy.
13. Informal
a. To gratify, cajole, or enchant artfully, especially for the purpose of influencing: The politician worked the crowd. The comedian worked the room with flawless rhythm.
b. To use or manipulate to one's own advantage; exploit: learned how to work the system; worked his relatives for sympathy.
14. To carry on an operation or function in or through: the agent who works that area; working the phones for donations.
15. To ferment (liquor, for example).
Phrasal Verbs:
work in
1. To insert or introduce: worked in a request for money.
2. To make an opening for, as in a schedule: said the doctor would try to work her in.
3. To cause to be inserted by repeated or continuous effort.
work into
1. To insert or introduce into.
2. To make an opening for (someone or something) in: worked a few field trips into the semester's calendar.
3. To cause to be inserted in by repeated or continuous effort: worked the pick into the lock.
work off
To get rid of by work or effort: work off extra pounds; work off a debt.
work out
1. To accomplish by work or effort.
2. To find a solution for; solve: worked out the equations; worked out their personal differences.
3. To formulate or develop: work out a plan.
4. To discharge (an obligation or debt) with labor in place of money.
5. To prove successful, effective, or satisfactory: The new strategy may not work out.
6. To have a specified result: The ratio works out to an odd number. It worked out that everyone left on the same train.
7. To engage in strenuous exercise for physical conditioning.
8. To exhaust (a mine, for example).
work over
1. To do for a second time; rework.
2. Slang To inflict severe physical damage on; beat up.
work up
1. To arouse the emotions of; excite.
2. a. To increase one's skill, responsibility, efficiency, or status through work: worked up to 30 sit-ups a day; worked up to store manager.
b. To intensify gradually: The film works up to a thrilling climax.
3. To develop or produce by mental or physical effort: worked up a patient profile; worked up an appetite.
Idioms:
at work
1. Engaged in labor; working: at work on a new project.
2. In operation: inflationary forces at work in the economy.
in the works
In preparation; under development: has a novel in the works.
out of work
Without a job; unemployed.
put in work
To perform labor or duties, as on a specified project: put in work on the plastering.
work both sides of the street
To engage in double-dealing; be duplicitous.
work like a charm
To function very well or have a very good effect or outcome.
work (one's) fingers to the bone
To labor extremely hard; toil or travail.
*****
sociology of Work (Wikipedia)
Industrial sociology, or the sociology of work, examines "the direction and implications of trends in technological change, globalization, labour markets, work organization, managerial practices and employment relations to the extent to which these trends are intimately related to changing patterns of inequality in modern societies and to the changing experiences of individuals and families the ways in which workers challenge, resist and make their own contributions to the patterning of work and shapingof work institutions."
Labor process theory
This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please improve this article if you can. (September 2009). One branch of industrial sociology is Labor process theory (LPT). In 1974, Harry Braverman wrote Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century, which provided a critical analysis of scientific management. This book analyzed capitalist productive relations from a Marxist perspective.[citation needed] Following Marx, Braverman argued that work within capitalist organisations was exploitative and alienating, and therefore workers had to be coerced into servitude. For Braverman the pursuit of capitalist interests over time ultimately leads to deskilling and routinisation of the worker. The Taylorist (see Frederick Taylor, Scientific Managementwork) work design that is the ultimate embodiment of this tendency.
Braverman demonstrated several mechanisms of control in both the factory blue collar and clerical white collar labor force.
Braverman's key contribution is his "deskilling" thesis. Braverman argued that capitalist owners and managers were incessantly driven to deskill the labor force to lower production costs and ensure higher productivity. Deskilled labour is cheap and above all easy to control due to the workers lack of direct engagement in the production process. In turn work becomes intellectually or emotionally unfulfilling; the lack of capitalist reliance on human skill reduces the need of employers to reward workers in anything but a minimal economic way.
Braverman's contribution to the sociology of work and industry (i.e., industrial sociology) has been important and his theories of the labor process continue to inform teaching and research. Braverman's thesis has however been contested, notably by Andrew Freidman in his work "Industry and Labour" (1977). In it, Freidman suggests that whilst the direct control of labour is beneficial for the capitalist under certain circumstances, a degree of 'responsible autonomy' can be granted to unionised or 'core' workers, in order to harness their skill under controlled conditions. Also, Richard Edwards showed in 1979 that although hierarchy in organisations has remained constant, additional forms of control (such as technical control via email monitoring, call monitoring; bureaucratic control via procedures for leave, sickness etc) has been added to gain the interests of the capitalist class versus the workers.
*****
Labor process theory
This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please improve this article if you can. (September 2009). One branch of industrial sociology is Labor process theory (LPT). In 1974, Harry Braverman wrote Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work in the Twentieth Century, which provided a critical analysis of scientific management. This book analyzed capitalist productive relations from a Marxist perspective.[citation needed] Following Marx, Braverman argued that work within capitalist organisations was exploitative and alienating, and therefore workers had to be coerced into servitude. For Braverman the pursuit of capitalist interests over time ultimately leads to deskilling and routinisation of the worker. The Taylorist (see Frederick Taylor, Scientific Managementwork) work design that is the ultimate embodiment of this tendency.
Braverman demonstrated several mechanisms of control in both the factory blue collar and clerical white collar labor force.
Braverman's key contribution is his "deskilling" thesis. Braverman argued that capitalist owners and managers were incessantly driven to deskill the labor force to lower production costs and ensure higher productivity. Deskilled labour is cheap and above all easy to control due to the workers lack of direct engagement in the production process. In turn work becomes intellectually or emotionally unfulfilling; the lack of capitalist reliance on human skill reduces the need of employers to reward workers in anything but a minimal economic way.
Braverman's contribution to the sociology of work and industry (i.e., industrial sociology) has been important and his theories of the labor process continue to inform teaching and research. Braverman's thesis has however been contested, notably by Andrew Freidman in his work "Industry and Labour" (1977). In it, Freidman suggests that whilst the direct control of labour is beneficial for the capitalist under certain circumstances, a degree of 'responsible autonomy' can be granted to unionised or 'core' workers, in order to harness their skill under controlled conditions. Also, Richard Edwards showed in 1979 that although hierarchy in organisations has remained constant, additional forms of control (such as technical control via email monitoring, call monitoring; bureaucratic control via procedures for leave, sickness etc) has been added to gain the interests of the capitalist class versus the workers.
*****
Minggu, 08 Mei 2011
ETOS KERJA BIROKRASI DI PEMERINTAH KOTA MALANG
Oleh: SURYONO, AGUS
Sumber http://www.adln.lib.unair.ac.id/print.php?id=gdlhub-gdl-s3-2007-suryonoagu-4019&PHPSESSID=04b240b8e11c4efa33cfe7d5fc244c0d
Dalam penelitian ini, etos kerja dipahami sebagai nilai-nilai ideal tentang kerja. Nilai adalah sesuatu yang dianggap bermanfaat, dan menguntungkan. Dengan demikian, etos kerja birokrasi merupakan perilaku kerja positif yang dianggap sebagai nilai-nilai ideal tentang kerja yang timbul dari keyakinan baik dan benar birokrat dalam birokrasi.
Penelitian ini dilatarbelakangi oleh adanya perdebatan pada tatanan teoritis maupun empiris mengenai etos kerja. Dari serangkaian perdebatan tersebut, terdapat problematika yang relevan untuk dikaji lebih lanjut, yaitu berkenaan dengan pertanyaan: Bagaimanakah dengan etos kerja di lingkungan birokrasi? Atau lebih khusus lagi, penelitian ini mengajukan pertanyaan: Apa karakteristik birokrasi dan karakteristik etos kerja birokrasi di Pemerintah Kota Malang? Karena selama ini, peta penelitian tentang etos kerja jarang sekali menyentuh obyek penelitian lain kecuali pada lingkungan masyarakat pemeluk agama tertentu dan wiraswasta.
Tujuan penelitian ini, adalah ingin mengetahui dan memahami secara mendalam mengenai nilai-nilai apa saja yang mendasari etos kerja birokrasi? Bagaimanakah pandangan hidup birokrat dalam lingkungan birokrasi?, dan Bagaimanakah pemahaman birokrat tentang kerja, sikap kerja, keberhasilan kerja, budaya kerja, disiplin kerja, dan pelayanan publik?. Dari gambaran pemahaman ini diharapkan mampu memberikan ilustrasi dan diskripsi mengenai konstruksi etos kerja birokrasi Pemerintah Kota Malang secara keseluruhan.
Timbulnya fenomena kinerja birokrasi yang dianggap rendah dan lamban, penelitian ini berasumsi bahwa hal tersebut disebabkan karena tidak dimilikinya komitmen dan konsistensi birokrat terhadap nilai-nilai etos kerja yang tumbuh dan berkembang di birokrasi. Oleh karena itu, penelitian ini menggarisbawahi arti pentingnya etos kerja sebagai alat untuk membina, mengembangkan, dan menegakkan sikap mental pegawai di lingkungan birokrasi.
Penelitian ini menggunakan jenis penelitian kualitatif dalam perspektif metode sosiologi Verstehen Weber (1969) yang berusaha memahami tindakan-tindakan sosial dengan menguraikan dan menerangkan sebab-sebab dari suatu tindakan tersebut. Disamping itu, sebagai instrumen penjelas realita dan alat analisis, penelitian ini juga memanfaatkan konsep Weber (1946) tentang birokrasi rasional, tesis Weber (1958) tentang etika protestan dan spirit kapitalisme, teori McClelland (1965) tentang kebutuhan berprestasi (Need for Achievement), teori Galtung (1973) tentang sumber-sumber kekuasaan, dan teori strukturasi Giddens (1991) tentang dualitas struktur.
Ada tujuh alasan, mengapa penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan dan teori-teori tersebut, yaitu: Pertama, bahwa tipe ideal birokrasi rasional Weber menganjurkan adanya keseimbangan antara pencapaian tujuan dan kepentingan birokrasi sebagai organisasi dan birokrat sebagai individu. Kedua, seorang birokrat dalam melaksanakan pekerjaannya, selalu terikat oleh dan dengan nilai-nilai sosial budaya dan struktur. Ketiga, nilai-nilai sosial budaya dan struktur tersebut dalam birokrasi merupakan landasan mekanisme kerja normatif yang secara legal rasional menunjukkan adanya hubungan antar satuan kerja dan tugas, serta wewenang dan tanggung jawab. Keempat, dalam kehidupan birokrat sebagai pelaku utama di birokrasi seringkali dijumpai individu¬individu yang ingin berprestasi mengembangkan kariemya, tuntutan dan harapannya sehingga selalu tidak merasa puas. Kelima, posisi birokrat dalam birokrasi merupakan satu kesatuan dari sistem sehingga terikat nilai dan tidak otonom. Keenam, peran birokrat dalam struktur dan fungsi memperlihatkan hubungan dualitas, selain mereproduksi tetapi juga memproduksi suatu nilai-nilai tertentu, sehingga tidak menimbulkan perasaan bahwa pihaknya yang terpenting dan paling penting. Ketujuh,
Giddens menjelaskan hubungan antara struktur dan individu bukan merupakan sesuatu yang dikotomis atau dualisme karakter, melainkan sebagai dua hal yang saling berhubungan secara dialektis dan kontinum sehingga menghasilkan dualitas struktur yakni tindakan individu dan struktur yang saling membutuhkan.
Hasil penelitian ini membuktikan bahwa nilai-nilai budaya lokal sebagai pandangan hidup birokrat menjadi preferensi umum yang mendasari etos kerja birokrasi yang sarat dengan kebutuhan akan nilai¬nilai kekuasaan (Need for Power), tetapi lemah dalam kebutuhan berprestasi (Need for Achievement) sebagaimana yang diformulasikan oleh McClelland (1965). Sumber nilai-nilai kekuasaan itu berupa kekuasaan ideologis yang menciptakan kepatuhan, kekuasaan remuneratif yang menciptakan ketergantungan, dan kekuasaan punitif yang menciptakan rasa ketakutan, sebagaimana yang diformulasikan Galtung (1973). Sumber nilai-nilai kekuasaan yang demikian, mempengaruhi pemahaman birokrat tentang makna kerja dan makna pelayanan publik yang diartikan sebagai pelaksanaan tugas dari atasan, pelaksanaan peraturan yang beriaku, dan sebagai sarana untuk kepentingan pribadi (balk secara ekonomi maupun prestise sosial). Sebagai konsekuensi dari pemahaman ini, maka dalam birokrasi muncul interaksi pelayanan publik dengan tipologi kerjasama, kompromi, konflik, kecurangan, intimidasi, dan kompensasi.
Dengan demikian, sebagai implikasi teroitisnya hasil penelitian ini selain melengkapi dan memperkaya perbendaharaan penelitian terdahulu tentang etos kerja yang selama ini di dominasi oleh pendekatan budaya dan praktek-praktek sosial dalam lingkungan masyarakat agamis dan wiraswasta, tetapi sekaligus menunjukkan bahwa dalam lingkungan birokrasi, aturan-aturan formal, pendekatan struktural, pendekatan prosedural, dan kesadaran birokrat untuk mengendalikan sikap mental dan tingkah laku kerjanya, ternyata masih sangat diperlukan.
Penelitian ini juga menemukan beberapa kandungan berharga dari nilai-nilai etos kerja yang tumbuh dan berkembang di birokrasi, misalnya ungkapan: Malangkuceswara (Tuhan menghancurkan kebathilan dan menegakkan kebaikan), Ing ngarso sung tuladha (pemimpin harus berada di depan dan mampu memberi contoh), Ing madya mangun karsa (pemimpin harus berada ditengah dan mampu menciptakan inisiatif), Tut wuri handayani (pemimpin harus berada dibelakang dan mampu memotivasi orang yang dipimpin), Wikanwasitha (pemimpin harus terampil dan menguasai iimu kepemimpinannya), Wicak sanengnaya (pemimpin harus mampu mengembangkan kewibawaan dan kearifan), Mengku ning uga ngayomi (pemimpin harus menguasai seluk beluk tugasnya untuk melindungi rakyat), Waskitaprana (pemimpin harus memiliki pandangan jauh kedepan), Anggawe ngguyune wong cilik (membuat tertawanya rakyat kecil), Mahayu hayuning bawana (membuat indahnya dunia), Jer basuki mawa bea (untuk mencapai sukses harus mau berkorban), Rawe¬rawe rantas malang-malang putung (kerja tanpa pantang menyerah), Sapa nandur bakal ngunduh (siapa menanam dia akan memetik buahnya), Kerja direwangi adus keringet (bekerja disertai mandi keringat), jika mau kita bisa, waktu adalah kerja, ada hari ada kerja, ada kerja ada upah, jika ada yang mudah mengapa di persulit, pekerjaan berat akan terasa ringan bila dikerjakan bersama-sama, bekerjalah yang enak tapi jangan bekerja seenaknya, kepuasan anda merupakan tujuan utama bagi kami, jadilah pemenang bukan yang kalah, tiada hari tanpa prestasi, hari ini lebih baik daripada hari kemarin, hari esok lebih baik daripada hari ini, dan sebagainya. ungkapan-ungkapan etos kerja semacam ini, sebagaimana disampaikan Weber (1958) merupakan karaktenstik psikologis yang di perlukan dalam menciptakan budaya kerja keras sebagai pencerminan citra diri seseorang atau masyarakat yang diwamai oleh apa yang di anggap ideal dalam pola berpikir suatu masyarakat pada kurun waktu tertentu.
Akhirnya, penelitian ini menggarisbawahi arti pentingnya etos kerja dan kepemimpinan legal rasional birokrasi dalam upaya membina, menegakkan dan meningkatkan disiplin kerja pegawai, memperhatikan sistem penghargaan dan hukuman (reward and punishment system) melalui mekanisme insentif maupun mekanisme rekrutmen kepemimpinan birokrasi, mengembangkan budaya malu dan menciptakan keteladanan kerja di Iingkungan pegawai, dan perlunya perundang-undangan yang mampu mengatur tentang standar pelayanan publik.
******
Sumber http://www.adln.lib.unair.ac.id/print.php?id=gdlhub-gdl-s3-2007-suryonoagu-4019&PHPSESSID=04b240b8e11c4efa33cfe7d5fc244c0d
Dalam penelitian ini, etos kerja dipahami sebagai nilai-nilai ideal tentang kerja. Nilai adalah sesuatu yang dianggap bermanfaat, dan menguntungkan. Dengan demikian, etos kerja birokrasi merupakan perilaku kerja positif yang dianggap sebagai nilai-nilai ideal tentang kerja yang timbul dari keyakinan baik dan benar birokrat dalam birokrasi.
Penelitian ini dilatarbelakangi oleh adanya perdebatan pada tatanan teoritis maupun empiris mengenai etos kerja. Dari serangkaian perdebatan tersebut, terdapat problematika yang relevan untuk dikaji lebih lanjut, yaitu berkenaan dengan pertanyaan: Bagaimanakah dengan etos kerja di lingkungan birokrasi? Atau lebih khusus lagi, penelitian ini mengajukan pertanyaan: Apa karakteristik birokrasi dan karakteristik etos kerja birokrasi di Pemerintah Kota Malang? Karena selama ini, peta penelitian tentang etos kerja jarang sekali menyentuh obyek penelitian lain kecuali pada lingkungan masyarakat pemeluk agama tertentu dan wiraswasta.
Tujuan penelitian ini, adalah ingin mengetahui dan memahami secara mendalam mengenai nilai-nilai apa saja yang mendasari etos kerja birokrasi? Bagaimanakah pandangan hidup birokrat dalam lingkungan birokrasi?, dan Bagaimanakah pemahaman birokrat tentang kerja, sikap kerja, keberhasilan kerja, budaya kerja, disiplin kerja, dan pelayanan publik?. Dari gambaran pemahaman ini diharapkan mampu memberikan ilustrasi dan diskripsi mengenai konstruksi etos kerja birokrasi Pemerintah Kota Malang secara keseluruhan.
Timbulnya fenomena kinerja birokrasi yang dianggap rendah dan lamban, penelitian ini berasumsi bahwa hal tersebut disebabkan karena tidak dimilikinya komitmen dan konsistensi birokrat terhadap nilai-nilai etos kerja yang tumbuh dan berkembang di birokrasi. Oleh karena itu, penelitian ini menggarisbawahi arti pentingnya etos kerja sebagai alat untuk membina, mengembangkan, dan menegakkan sikap mental pegawai di lingkungan birokrasi.
Penelitian ini menggunakan jenis penelitian kualitatif dalam perspektif metode sosiologi Verstehen Weber (1969) yang berusaha memahami tindakan-tindakan sosial dengan menguraikan dan menerangkan sebab-sebab dari suatu tindakan tersebut. Disamping itu, sebagai instrumen penjelas realita dan alat analisis, penelitian ini juga memanfaatkan konsep Weber (1946) tentang birokrasi rasional, tesis Weber (1958) tentang etika protestan dan spirit kapitalisme, teori McClelland (1965) tentang kebutuhan berprestasi (Need for Achievement), teori Galtung (1973) tentang sumber-sumber kekuasaan, dan teori strukturasi Giddens (1991) tentang dualitas struktur.
Ada tujuh alasan, mengapa penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan dan teori-teori tersebut, yaitu: Pertama, bahwa tipe ideal birokrasi rasional Weber menganjurkan adanya keseimbangan antara pencapaian tujuan dan kepentingan birokrasi sebagai organisasi dan birokrat sebagai individu. Kedua, seorang birokrat dalam melaksanakan pekerjaannya, selalu terikat oleh dan dengan nilai-nilai sosial budaya dan struktur. Ketiga, nilai-nilai sosial budaya dan struktur tersebut dalam birokrasi merupakan landasan mekanisme kerja normatif yang secara legal rasional menunjukkan adanya hubungan antar satuan kerja dan tugas, serta wewenang dan tanggung jawab. Keempat, dalam kehidupan birokrat sebagai pelaku utama di birokrasi seringkali dijumpai individu¬individu yang ingin berprestasi mengembangkan kariemya, tuntutan dan harapannya sehingga selalu tidak merasa puas. Kelima, posisi birokrat dalam birokrasi merupakan satu kesatuan dari sistem sehingga terikat nilai dan tidak otonom. Keenam, peran birokrat dalam struktur dan fungsi memperlihatkan hubungan dualitas, selain mereproduksi tetapi juga memproduksi suatu nilai-nilai tertentu, sehingga tidak menimbulkan perasaan bahwa pihaknya yang terpenting dan paling penting. Ketujuh,
Giddens menjelaskan hubungan antara struktur dan individu bukan merupakan sesuatu yang dikotomis atau dualisme karakter, melainkan sebagai dua hal yang saling berhubungan secara dialektis dan kontinum sehingga menghasilkan dualitas struktur yakni tindakan individu dan struktur yang saling membutuhkan.
Hasil penelitian ini membuktikan bahwa nilai-nilai budaya lokal sebagai pandangan hidup birokrat menjadi preferensi umum yang mendasari etos kerja birokrasi yang sarat dengan kebutuhan akan nilai¬nilai kekuasaan (Need for Power), tetapi lemah dalam kebutuhan berprestasi (Need for Achievement) sebagaimana yang diformulasikan oleh McClelland (1965). Sumber nilai-nilai kekuasaan itu berupa kekuasaan ideologis yang menciptakan kepatuhan, kekuasaan remuneratif yang menciptakan ketergantungan, dan kekuasaan punitif yang menciptakan rasa ketakutan, sebagaimana yang diformulasikan Galtung (1973). Sumber nilai-nilai kekuasaan yang demikian, mempengaruhi pemahaman birokrat tentang makna kerja dan makna pelayanan publik yang diartikan sebagai pelaksanaan tugas dari atasan, pelaksanaan peraturan yang beriaku, dan sebagai sarana untuk kepentingan pribadi (balk secara ekonomi maupun prestise sosial). Sebagai konsekuensi dari pemahaman ini, maka dalam birokrasi muncul interaksi pelayanan publik dengan tipologi kerjasama, kompromi, konflik, kecurangan, intimidasi, dan kompensasi.
Dengan demikian, sebagai implikasi teroitisnya hasil penelitian ini selain melengkapi dan memperkaya perbendaharaan penelitian terdahulu tentang etos kerja yang selama ini di dominasi oleh pendekatan budaya dan praktek-praktek sosial dalam lingkungan masyarakat agamis dan wiraswasta, tetapi sekaligus menunjukkan bahwa dalam lingkungan birokrasi, aturan-aturan formal, pendekatan struktural, pendekatan prosedural, dan kesadaran birokrat untuk mengendalikan sikap mental dan tingkah laku kerjanya, ternyata masih sangat diperlukan.
Penelitian ini juga menemukan beberapa kandungan berharga dari nilai-nilai etos kerja yang tumbuh dan berkembang di birokrasi, misalnya ungkapan: Malangkuceswara (Tuhan menghancurkan kebathilan dan menegakkan kebaikan), Ing ngarso sung tuladha (pemimpin harus berada di depan dan mampu memberi contoh), Ing madya mangun karsa (pemimpin harus berada ditengah dan mampu menciptakan inisiatif), Tut wuri handayani (pemimpin harus berada dibelakang dan mampu memotivasi orang yang dipimpin), Wikanwasitha (pemimpin harus terampil dan menguasai iimu kepemimpinannya), Wicak sanengnaya (pemimpin harus mampu mengembangkan kewibawaan dan kearifan), Mengku ning uga ngayomi (pemimpin harus menguasai seluk beluk tugasnya untuk melindungi rakyat), Waskitaprana (pemimpin harus memiliki pandangan jauh kedepan), Anggawe ngguyune wong cilik (membuat tertawanya rakyat kecil), Mahayu hayuning bawana (membuat indahnya dunia), Jer basuki mawa bea (untuk mencapai sukses harus mau berkorban), Rawe¬rawe rantas malang-malang putung (kerja tanpa pantang menyerah), Sapa nandur bakal ngunduh (siapa menanam dia akan memetik buahnya), Kerja direwangi adus keringet (bekerja disertai mandi keringat), jika mau kita bisa, waktu adalah kerja, ada hari ada kerja, ada kerja ada upah, jika ada yang mudah mengapa di persulit, pekerjaan berat akan terasa ringan bila dikerjakan bersama-sama, bekerjalah yang enak tapi jangan bekerja seenaknya, kepuasan anda merupakan tujuan utama bagi kami, jadilah pemenang bukan yang kalah, tiada hari tanpa prestasi, hari ini lebih baik daripada hari kemarin, hari esok lebih baik daripada hari ini, dan sebagainya. ungkapan-ungkapan etos kerja semacam ini, sebagaimana disampaikan Weber (1958) merupakan karaktenstik psikologis yang di perlukan dalam menciptakan budaya kerja keras sebagai pencerminan citra diri seseorang atau masyarakat yang diwamai oleh apa yang di anggap ideal dalam pola berpikir suatu masyarakat pada kurun waktu tertentu.
Akhirnya, penelitian ini menggarisbawahi arti pentingnya etos kerja dan kepemimpinan legal rasional birokrasi dalam upaya membina, menegakkan dan meningkatkan disiplin kerja pegawai, memperhatikan sistem penghargaan dan hukuman (reward and punishment system) melalui mekanisme insentif maupun mekanisme rekrutmen kepemimpinan birokrasi, mengembangkan budaya malu dan menciptakan keteladanan kerja di Iingkungan pegawai, dan perlunya perundang-undangan yang mampu mengatur tentang standar pelayanan publik.
******
Connecting Work–Family Policies to Supportive Work Environments
Alison Cook (Utah State University)
Abstract
This research provides a theory-driven approach to study the relationship between the availability of work–family policies and family-supportive organization perceptions (FSOPs) and supervisory support perceptions (SSPs). At-risk family characteristics, which are characteristics that potentially affect work–family conflict such as a young child in the home, are investigated as a moderator of the proposed relationships. Findings substantiate positive relationships between the availability of work–family policies and FSOPs and SSPs; in addition, at-risk family characteristics are found to strengthen the relationship between work–family policies and SSPs. FSOPs and SSPs are also examined as mediators of the relationship between work–family policies and employee outcomes of intention to turnover, job satisfaction, and job burnout. Findings partially support FSOPs and SSPs as having mediating influences in the work–family policies and work attitudes relationship.
Keywords: work–family policies; work–life policies; supervisory support; organizational support
*****
Abstract
This research provides a theory-driven approach to study the relationship between the availability of work–family policies and family-supportive organization perceptions (FSOPs) and supervisory support perceptions (SSPs). At-risk family characteristics, which are characteristics that potentially affect work–family conflict such as a young child in the home, are investigated as a moderator of the proposed relationships. Findings substantiate positive relationships between the availability of work–family policies and FSOPs and SSPs; in addition, at-risk family characteristics are found to strengthen the relationship between work–family policies and SSPs. FSOPs and SSPs are also examined as mediators of the relationship between work–family policies and employee outcomes of intention to turnover, job satisfaction, and job burnout. Findings partially support FSOPs and SSPs as having mediating influences in the work–family policies and work attitudes relationship.
Keywords: work–family policies; work–life policies; supervisory support; organizational support
*****
Religious Groups and Work Values:
A Focus on Buddhism, Christianity,
Hinduism, and Islam
K. Praveen Parboteeah: University of Wisconsin–Whitewater, USA
Yongsun Paik: Loyola Marymount University, USA
John B. Cullen: Washington State University, USA
ABSTRACT
Although the existing literature contends that religious beliefs have a strong
impact on work values, few studies have examined the relationship. Given the sustained importance of religion in most societies and the growing diversity of the US population, companies are finding an increasing need to understand religion in the workplace. The current research uses data from 44,030 individuals in 39 countries to investigate the influence of the world’s four major religions, Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, and Islam on extrinsic and intrinsic work values. Controlling for important variables such as age, gender, and education, results generally support the posited hypotheses, confirming that religion is positively related to work values. Specifically, we find that all religions except Christianity show a positive relationship with extrinsic work values. Furthermore, we find that all four religions show a positive relationship with intrinsic work values. We also find that those who report no religious affiliation also view work values positively. We suggest that these results are perhaps a result of the converging effects of globalization. This article makes an important contribution to the literature by examining a large sample covering the world’s major religions. The findings suggest that most religions view work in a positive light. Such findings are important as more multinationals attempt to manage an increasingly diverse workforce worldwide.
Key words: extrinsic work values, intrinsic work values, religions
******
Hinduism, and Islam
K. Praveen Parboteeah: University of Wisconsin–Whitewater, USA
Yongsun Paik: Loyola Marymount University, USA
John B. Cullen: Washington State University, USA
ABSTRACT
Although the existing literature contends that religious beliefs have a strong
impact on work values, few studies have examined the relationship. Given the sustained importance of religion in most societies and the growing diversity of the US population, companies are finding an increasing need to understand religion in the workplace. The current research uses data from 44,030 individuals in 39 countries to investigate the influence of the world’s four major religions, Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, and Islam on extrinsic and intrinsic work values. Controlling for important variables such as age, gender, and education, results generally support the posited hypotheses, confirming that religion is positively related to work values. Specifically, we find that all religions except Christianity show a positive relationship with extrinsic work values. Furthermore, we find that all four religions show a positive relationship with intrinsic work values. We also find that those who report no religious affiliation also view work values positively. We suggest that these results are perhaps a result of the converging effects of globalization. This article makes an important contribution to the literature by examining a large sample covering the world’s major religions. The findings suggest that most religions view work in a positive light. Such findings are important as more multinationals attempt to manage an increasingly diverse workforce worldwide.
Key words: extrinsic work values, intrinsic work values, religions
******
Langganan:
Postingan (Atom)